Wednesday, March 18, 2009
Friday, February 20, 2009
KASHMIR
Kashmir (Balti: کشمیر; Dogri: कश्मीर, Poonchi/Chibhali: کشمیر; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Shina: کشمیر; Uyghur: كھسىمڭر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" referred only to the valley lying between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range; since then, it has been used for a larger area that today includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir consisting of the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh; the Pakistani-administered provinces of the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir, and the Chinese-administered region of Aksai Chin.
In the first half of the first millennium, Kashmir became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose in the region.[1] The heritage of Kashmir during this period is well documented in Rajatarangini by Kalhana. In 1349, Shah Mirza became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the line Salatin-i-Kashmir.[2] For the next five centuries Kashmir had Muslim monarchs, including the Mughals, who ruled until 1751, and thereafter, the Afghan Durranis, who ruled until 1820.[2] That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[2] In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
Etymology
General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple A.D. 490-555. Probable date of colonnade A.D. 693-729. Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu & Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868.
The Nilamata Purana describes the Valley's origin from the waters, Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kaashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water", or vale. There is also a theory which takes Kaashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the "sea or mountain of Kashyapa", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial lake Satisar, that Kaashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kaashmira to the Valley considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kaashmir that the world knows today. The Kaashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kaashmir, as pointed out by Aurel Stein in his introduction to the Rajatarangini.
In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kaashmir written by Kalhana in the 12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kaashmir was formerly a lake. This was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). Cashmere is a variant spelling of Kaashmir.[3]
History
Early history
Buddhism in Kashmir
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE
The Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with having founded the city of Srinagar. Kashmir was once a Buddhist seat of learning, perhaps with the Sarvāstivādan school dominating. East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century AD, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.
Muslim rule
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500, 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.
Following the advent of Muslim rule in 1349, Islam became the dominant religion in Kashmir.[citation needed] The Muslims and Hindus of Kashmir lived in relative harmony, since the Sufi-Islamic way of life that ordinary Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the Rishi tradition of Kashmiri Pandits. This led to a syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the same shrines[citation needed]. Famous sufi saint Bulbul Shah was able to convert Rinchan Shah who was then prince of Kashgar Ladakh to an Islamic lifestyle, thus founding the Sufiana composite culture. Under this rule, Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist Kashmiris generally co-existed peacefully. Over time, however, the Sufiana governance gave way to outright Muslim monarchs.
Some Kashmiri rulers, such as Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, were tolerant of all religions in a manner comparable to Akbar. However, several Muslim rulers of Kashmir were intolerant of other religions. Sultمn Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered the worst of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The Tarikh-i-Firishta records that Sikandar persecuted the Hindus and issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He also ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the Brahmins, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped. After the emigration of the Brahmins, Sikandar ordered all the temples in Kashmir to be thrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmir, (Sikandar) acquired the title of ‘Destroyer of Idols’."
The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini, has been pronounced by Professor H.H.Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the appellation "history" can with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Muslims when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor. A translation into Persian was made at his order. A summary of its contents, taken from this Persian translation, is given by Abul Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari. The Rajatarangini was written by Kalhana about the middle of the 12th century. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings that are now lost.
The Rajatarangini is the first of a series of four histories that record the annals of Kashmir. Commencing with a rendition of traditional history of very early times, the Rajatarangini comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, (c.1006 AD). The second work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from where Kalhana left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. The fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.
Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu
Main articles: History of Jammu and Kashmir and Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu
1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.
By the early 19th century, the Kashmir valley had passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering Sikh armies. Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was captured by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Lahore and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power.[5] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley by the Sikhs army in 1819, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured Ladakh and Baltistan, regions to the east and north-east of Jammu
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) one crore of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second[6] the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir).[5] Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.
Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi"[7] for 75 lakhs rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding).
The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."[8] It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[8] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
Year 1947 and 1948
Further information: Kashmir conflict, Timeline of the Kashmir conflict, and Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire.
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. As parties to the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or—in special cases—to remain independent. In 1947, Kashmir's population "was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the Maharaja would accede to Pakistan, when the British paramountcy ended on 14-15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten[9] for assistance, and the Governor-General agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India."[10] Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, "Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referandum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars."
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[10] and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Vale of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[]
The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north from its source near the town of Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross the Kunlun Mountains.
The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39, establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation, the Security Council ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948, that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN.
The Government of India holds that the Maharaja signed a document of accession to India October 26, 1947. Pakistan has disputed whether the Maharaja actually signed the accession treaty before Indian troops entered Kashmir. Furthermore, Pakistan claims the Indian government has never produced an original copy of this accession treaty and thus its validity and legality is disputed. However, India has produced the instrument of accession with an original copy image on its website. Alan Campbell-Johnson, the press attaché to the Viceroy of India states that "The legality of the accession is beyond doubt."
Post-1948 developments
Topographic map of Kasmir.
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist takeover in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.[11] : "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."[11] China has occupied Aksai Chin since the early 1950s and, in addition, an adjoining region almost 8% of the territory, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963.
Meanwhile, elections were held in Indian Jammu & Kashmir, which brought up the popular Muslim leader Sheikh Abdullah, who with his party National Conference, by and large supported India. The elected Constituent Assembly met for the first time in Srinagar on October 31, 1951.[13] Then The State Constituent Assembly ratified the accession of the State to the Union of India on February 6, 1954 and the President of India subsequently issued the Constitution (Application to J&K) Order under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution extending the Union Constitution to the State with some exceptions and modifications. The State’s own Constitution came into force on January 26, 1957 under which the elections to the State Legislative Assembly were held for the first time on the basis of adult franchise the same year. This Constitution further reiterated the ratification of the State’s accession to Union of India.[13] However, these tidings were not recognized by Pakistan, which has continued to press for a plebiscite to ascertain the wishes of the people. Pakistan set up its own Kashmir, called Azad Kashmir in a tiny Western chunk that it controls. The much larger region of Pakistani Kashmir in the North-West, which was a province named Northern Areas in the erstwhile state, by and large bore no mention in Pakistani laws and Constitution as being of any status, until in 1982 the Pakistani President General Zia ul Haq proclaimed that the people of the Northern Areas were Pakistanis and had nothing to do with the State of Jammu and Kashmir.[14]
Current status and political divisions
Populous[15] Kashmir Valley (highlighted in dark brown), and Siachen Glacier (white) are in Indian control.
The region is divided among three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whereas Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 141,338 km2 (54,571 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan 85,846 km2 (33,145 sq mi) and China, the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by each other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.
Kashmir Valley
View on the Jhelum river at Srinagar.
The Kashmir Valley or Vale of Kashmir is a valley between Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. It is around 135 km long and 32 km wide, formed by the Jhelum River[16] It was called as "Heaven on Earth" by Jahangir.
It lies completely within Indian administration in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Srinagar is its main city and also the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir. There has been armed insurgency since 1989 due to the conflict. It has access to the rest of India through Banihal Tunnel near Qazigund on NH 1A to Jammu, which is interrupted by snowfall in winter. Other main cities are Anantnag and Baramulla.
Jammu and Azad Kashmir
Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie outside Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. Azad Kashmir region is connected to Kashmir Valley through Jhelum river valley, which are separated politically since partition of India. Main cities are Jammu (city) and Muzaffarabad.
Northern Areas
The Northern Areas are a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram,the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges.
The region, which became a single administrative unit in 1970, is under the administrative control of Pakistan. With its administrative center at the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 km² (28,174 mi²) and have an estimated population approaching 1,000,000. According to Pakistan's constitution, the Northern Areas are not a fully integral part of Pakistan, and their inhabitants have never had any representation in Pakistan's parliament despite such demands by the people living in the area. The other main city is Skardu.
Ladakh
Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south, .[17] The geographical divide between Ladakh in the highlands of Kashmir and the Tibetan Plateau commences in the vicinity of Pulu and continues southwards along the intricate maze of ridges situated east of Rudok, wherein are situated Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri and culminates in the vicinity of Mayum La.
It is under Indian administration and is part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[17] Main cities are Leh and Kargil.
Aksai Chin
Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
At present under Chinese administration, it covers an area of 42,685 square kilometres (16,481 sq mi) of the disputed territory.
Demographics
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, Muslims constituted 74.16% of the total population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, Hindus, 23.72%, and Buddhists, 1.21%. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population.[18] In the Kashmir Valley, Muslims constituted 93.6% of the population and Hindus 5.24%.[18] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[19] Forty years later, in the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus for 4%.[19] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[20] and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 66% and those of Muslims 30%.[20] In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims (74.16%), 689,073 Hindus (23.72%), 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists.
A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolith., William Simpson.
Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[18] It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre," "Shaikh,", "Bhat", "Mantu," "Ganai," "Dar," "Damar," "Lon" etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is "Mir." While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[18] The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg," "Bandi," "Bach," and "Ashaye." Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu."
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population.[18] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[18] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.[18] Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[18]
Kashmiri home life c.1890. Photographer unknown.
Muslim papier maché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).[21]
According to political scientist Alexander Evans, approximately 95% of the total population of 160,000-170,000 of Kashmir Brahmins, also called Kashmiri Pandits, (i.e. approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990 "as militant violence engulfed the state".[22] According to the CIA Factbook chapter on India, approximately 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the state of Jammu and Kashmir are internally displaced.[23]
Occupied by Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % Other
India Jammu ~3 million 30% 66% – 4%
Kashmir Valley ~4 million 95% 4%* – –
Ladakh ~0.25 million 46% – 50% 3%
Pakistan Northern Areas ~1 million 99% – – –
Azad Kashmir ~2.6 million 100% – – –
China Aksai Chin – – – – –
Statistics from the BBC In Depth report.
* About 300,000 Hindus in Indian Administered Kashmir are internally displaced due to militancy. - CIA
[Culture and cuisine
Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes
Further information: Cuisine of Kashmir, Kashmiri literature, and Kashmiri music
Kashmiri cuisine includes dum aloo (boiled potatoes with heavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese), rogan josh (lamb cooked in heavy spices), zaam dod (curd), yakhayn (lamb cooked incurd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-like leaf), rista-gushtava (minced meat balls in tomato and curd curry) and of course the signature rice which is particular to Asian cultures. The traditional wazwan feast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mutton, in several different ways.
Alcohol and Beef are not widely consumed in Kashmir. There are two styles of making tea in the region: nun chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour and popular with locals; and kahwah, a tea for festive occasions, made with saffron and spices.
Economy
Further information: Economy of Azad Kashmir and Economy of Jammu and Kashmir
Tourism is one of the main sources of income for vast sections of the Kashmiri population. Shown here is the famous Dal Lake in Srinagar.
Skardu in the Northern Areas, is the point of departure for mountaineering expeditions in the Karakorams.
Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron too is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the Middle East. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.
The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of October 8, 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled Kashmir.
History of Tourism in Kashmir
During the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due to its climate. Only 200 passes a year were issued by the government. European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, traveled there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi, and a road thence to Srinagar made access to the valley easier. When the temperature in Srinagar rose at the beginning of June, the residents migrated to Gulmarg, which was a fashionable hill station during British rule. This great influx of visitors resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen. Special game preservation rules were introduced, and nullahs were let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot. Rawalakot was another popular destination.
In the first half of the first millennium, Kashmir became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose in the region.[1] The heritage of Kashmir during this period is well documented in Rajatarangini by Kalhana. In 1349, Shah Mirza became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the line Salatin-i-Kashmir.[2] For the next five centuries Kashmir had Muslim monarchs, including the Mughals, who ruled until 1751, and thereafter, the Afghan Durranis, who ruled until 1820.[2] That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[2] In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
Etymology
General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple A.D. 490-555. Probable date of colonnade A.D. 693-729. Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu & Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868.
The Nilamata Purana describes the Valley's origin from the waters, Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kaashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water", or vale. There is also a theory which takes Kaashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the "sea or mountain of Kashyapa", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial lake Satisar, that Kaashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kaashmira to the Valley considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kaashmir that the world knows today. The Kaashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kaashmir, as pointed out by Aurel Stein in his introduction to the Rajatarangini.
In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kaashmir written by Kalhana in the 12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kaashmir was formerly a lake. This was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). Cashmere is a variant spelling of Kaashmir.[3]
History
Early history
Buddhism in Kashmir
This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE
The Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with having founded the city of Srinagar. Kashmir was once a Buddhist seat of learning, perhaps with the Sarvāstivādan school dominating. East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century AD, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.
Muslim rule
Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500, 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library.
Following the advent of Muslim rule in 1349, Islam became the dominant religion in Kashmir.[citation needed] The Muslims and Hindus of Kashmir lived in relative harmony, since the Sufi-Islamic way of life that ordinary Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the Rishi tradition of Kashmiri Pandits. This led to a syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the same shrines[citation needed]. Famous sufi saint Bulbul Shah was able to convert Rinchan Shah who was then prince of Kashgar Ladakh to an Islamic lifestyle, thus founding the Sufiana composite culture. Under this rule, Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist Kashmiris generally co-existed peacefully. Over time, however, the Sufiana governance gave way to outright Muslim monarchs.
Some Kashmiri rulers, such as Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, were tolerant of all religions in a manner comparable to Akbar. However, several Muslim rulers of Kashmir were intolerant of other religions. Sultمn Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered the worst of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The Tarikh-i-Firishta records that Sikandar persecuted the Hindus and issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He also ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the Brahmins, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped. After the emigration of the Brahmins, Sikandar ordered all the temples in Kashmir to be thrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmir, (Sikandar) acquired the title of ‘Destroyer of Idols’."
The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini, has been pronounced by Professor H.H.Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the appellation "history" can with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Muslims when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor. A translation into Persian was made at his order. A summary of its contents, taken from this Persian translation, is given by Abul Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari. The Rajatarangini was written by Kalhana about the middle of the 12th century. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings that are now lost.
The Rajatarangini is the first of a series of four histories that record the annals of Kashmir. Commencing with a rendition of traditional history of very early times, the Rajatarangini comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, (c.1006 AD). The second work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from where Kalhana left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. The fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.
Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu
Main articles: History of Jammu and Kashmir and Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu
1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red.
By the early 19th century, the Kashmir valley had passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering Sikh armies. Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was captured by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Lahore and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power.[5] Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley by the Sikhs army in 1819, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured Ladakh and Baltistan, regions to the east and north-east of Jammu
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) one crore of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second[6] the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir).[5] Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.
Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi"[7] for 75 lakhs rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding).
The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire."[8] It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[8] After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown.
Year 1947 and 1948
Further information: Kashmir conflict, Timeline of the Kashmir conflict, and Indo-Pakistani War of 1947
The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the Indian Empire.
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. As parties to the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or—in special cases—to remain independent. In 1947, Kashmir's population "was 77 per cent Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the Maharaja would accede to Pakistan, when the British paramountcy ended on 14-15 August. When he hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched a guerilla onslaught meant to frighten its ruler into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to Mountbatten[9] for assistance, and the Governor-General agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India."[10] Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, "Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referandum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars."
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured,[10] and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Vale of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."[]
The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north from its source near the town of Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross the Kunlun Mountains.
The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39, establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation, the Security Council ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948, that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN.
The Government of India holds that the Maharaja signed a document of accession to India October 26, 1947. Pakistan has disputed whether the Maharaja actually signed the accession treaty before Indian troops entered Kashmir. Furthermore, Pakistan claims the Indian government has never produced an original copy of this accession treaty and thus its validity and legality is disputed. However, India has produced the instrument of accession with an original copy image on its website. Alan Campbell-Johnson, the press attaché to the Viceroy of India states that "The legality of the accession is beyond doubt."
Post-1948 developments
Topographic map of Kasmir.
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist takeover in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.[11] : "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962."[11] China has occupied Aksai Chin since the early 1950s and, in addition, an adjoining region almost 8% of the territory, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963.
Meanwhile, elections were held in Indian Jammu & Kashmir, which brought up the popular Muslim leader Sheikh Abdullah, who with his party National Conference, by and large supported India. The elected Constituent Assembly met for the first time in Srinagar on October 31, 1951.[13] Then The State Constituent Assembly ratified the accession of the State to the Union of India on February 6, 1954 and the President of India subsequently issued the Constitution (Application to J&K) Order under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution extending the Union Constitution to the State with some exceptions and modifications. The State’s own Constitution came into force on January 26, 1957 under which the elections to the State Legislative Assembly were held for the first time on the basis of adult franchise the same year. This Constitution further reiterated the ratification of the State’s accession to Union of India.[13] However, these tidings were not recognized by Pakistan, which has continued to press for a plebiscite to ascertain the wishes of the people. Pakistan set up its own Kashmir, called Azad Kashmir in a tiny Western chunk that it controls. The much larger region of Pakistani Kashmir in the North-West, which was a province named Northern Areas in the erstwhile state, by and large bore no mention in Pakistani laws and Constitution as being of any status, until in 1982 the Pakistani President General Zia ul Haq proclaimed that the people of the Northern Areas were Pakistanis and had nothing to do with the State of Jammu and Kashmir.[14]
Current status and political divisions
Populous[15] Kashmir Valley (highlighted in dark brown), and Siachen Glacier (white) are in Indian control.
The region is divided among three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whereas Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 141,338 km2 (54,571 sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan 85,846 km2 (33,145 sq mi) and China, the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).
Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by each other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.
Kashmir Valley
View on the Jhelum river at Srinagar.
The Kashmir Valley or Vale of Kashmir is a valley between Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. It is around 135 km long and 32 km wide, formed by the Jhelum River[16] It was called as "Heaven on Earth" by Jahangir.
It lies completely within Indian administration in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Srinagar is its main city and also the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir. There has been armed insurgency since 1989 due to the conflict. It has access to the rest of India through Banihal Tunnel near Qazigund on NH 1A to Jammu, which is interrupted by snowfall in winter. Other main cities are Anantnag and Baramulla.
Jammu and Azad Kashmir
Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie outside Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. Azad Kashmir region is connected to Kashmir Valley through Jhelum river valley, which are separated politically since partition of India. Main cities are Jammu (city) and Muzaffarabad.
Northern Areas
The Northern Areas are a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram,the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges.
The region, which became a single administrative unit in 1970, is under the administrative control of Pakistan. With its administrative center at the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 km² (28,174 mi²) and have an estimated population approaching 1,000,000. According to Pakistan's constitution, the Northern Areas are not a fully integral part of Pakistan, and their inhabitants have never had any representation in Pakistan's parliament despite such demands by the people living in the area. The other main city is Skardu.
Ladakh
Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south, .[17] The geographical divide between Ladakh in the highlands of Kashmir and the Tibetan Plateau commences in the vicinity of Pulu and continues southwards along the intricate maze of ridges situated east of Rudok, wherein are situated Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri and culminates in the vicinity of Mayum La.
It is under Indian administration and is part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[17] Main cities are Leh and Kargil.
Aksai Chin
Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements.
At present under Chinese administration, it covers an area of 42,685 square kilometres (16,481 sq mi) of the disputed territory.
Demographics
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, Muslims constituted 74.16% of the total population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, Hindus, 23.72%, and Buddhists, 1.21%. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population.[18] In the Kashmir Valley, Muslims constituted 93.6% of the population and Hindus 5.24%.[18] These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years.[19] Forty years later, in the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus for 4%.[19] In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95%[20] and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 66% and those of Muslims 30%.[20] In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims (74.16%), 689,073 Hindus (23.72%), 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists.
A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolith., William Simpson.
Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..."[18] It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre," "Shaikh,", "Bhat", "Mantu," "Ganai," "Dar," "Damar," "Lon" etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is "Mir." While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name."[18] The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg," "Bandi," "Bach," and "Ashaye." Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu."
The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population.[18] In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)."[18] In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641.[18] Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."[18]
Kashmiri home life c.1890. Photographer unknown.
Muslim papier maché ornament painters in Kashmir. 1895. Photographer: unknown.
Three Hindu priests writing religious texts. 1890s, Jammu and Kashmir, photographer: unknown.
Full-length portrait of two Ladakhi men. 1895, Ladakh, unknown photographer.
In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%).[21]
According to political scientist Alexander Evans, approximately 95% of the total population of 160,000-170,000 of Kashmir Brahmins, also called Kashmiri Pandits, (i.e. approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990 "as militant violence engulfed the state".[22] According to the CIA Factbook chapter on India, approximately 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the state of Jammu and Kashmir are internally displaced.[23]
Occupied by Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % Other
India Jammu ~3 million 30% 66% – 4%
Kashmir Valley ~4 million 95% 4%* – –
Ladakh ~0.25 million 46% – 50% 3%
Pakistan Northern Areas ~1 million 99% – – –
Azad Kashmir ~2.6 million 100% – – –
China Aksai Chin – – – – –
Statistics from the BBC In Depth report.
* About 300,000 Hindus in Indian Administered Kashmir are internally displaced due to militancy. - CIA
[Culture and cuisine
Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes
Further information: Cuisine of Kashmir, Kashmiri literature, and Kashmiri music
Kashmiri cuisine includes dum aloo (boiled potatoes with heavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese), rogan josh (lamb cooked in heavy spices), zaam dod (curd), yakhayn (lamb cooked incurd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-like leaf), rista-gushtava (minced meat balls in tomato and curd curry) and of course the signature rice which is particular to Asian cultures. The traditional wazwan feast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mutton, in several different ways.
Alcohol and Beef are not widely consumed in Kashmir. There are two styles of making tea in the region: nun chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour and popular with locals; and kahwah, a tea for festive occasions, made with saffron and spices.
Economy
Further information: Economy of Azad Kashmir and Economy of Jammu and Kashmir
Tourism is one of the main sources of income for vast sections of the Kashmiri population. Shown here is the famous Dal Lake in Srinagar.
Skardu in the Northern Areas, is the point of departure for mountaineering expeditions in the Karakorams.
Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry.
Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron too is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the Middle East. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk.
The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of October 8, 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled Kashmir.
History of Tourism in Kashmir
During the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due to its climate. Only 200 passes a year were issued by the government. European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, traveled there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi, and a road thence to Srinagar made access to the valley easier. When the temperature in Srinagar rose at the beginning of June, the residents migrated to Gulmarg, which was a fashionable hill station during British rule. This great influx of visitors resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen. Special game preservation rules were introduced, and nullahs were let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot. Rawalakot was another popular destination.
Monday, February 16, 2009
e-governance
Paper submitted by:
MIRZA MOHAMMAD IDREES UL HAQ BEIGH
B.E, 1st SEMESTER, (ELECTRICAL)
MIET, KOTBHALWAL, JAMMU
MOBILE NO: +919419429085
Email:beighidi@gmail.com
Website: www.beighidi.bloggspot.com
e-governance
Governments around the world are changing, both because of the internal desire to be at par with the practices adopted by the private sector, and the aspirations of the citizens who are placing newer demands on the government. This change or transformation in the way governments function is often termed as e-Governance – a transformation in governance, enabled primarily by the adoption of ICT (information and communications technology). Simply put, e-Governance can help governments provide the following activity sets across various domains:
• Information dissemination – Information intended to be used at large by citizens and businesses is pushed over the Internet for easy and anywhere access.
• Two-way communication – A medium for dialogue between the government agency and the customer (citizens, businesses or other government agency) is provided where communication can take place across entities without the need for a physical visit.
• Transaction conduction – Government service request and processing including service delivery wherever possible is conducted electronically by the use of ICT.
• Governance – Governance aspects are streamlined and automated, viz. online polling, voting and campaigning.The anticipated benefits of e-governance include enhanced process efficiency, improved service delivery, better accessibility of public services, and increased transparency and accountability.
We also hear about ‘e-Government,’ at times…
It is essential to understand that e-Governance is not the same as e-Government. Both these terms are used synonymously many a time, although they are quite different, have differing audiences to cater to and different objectives to achieve. E-Government refers to the use of electronic technology to improve the business of government; whereas e-Governance is a wider concept that defines and assesses the impact technologies are having on the practice and administration of governments and the relationships between them and the wider society.
Haven’t we had successful e-Governance projects? What has changed?
True, we have had quite a few successful e-Governance initiatives in the country. If we look at the development of many of these, we will realise that they were conceptualised with specific focus on any one core aspect of the e-Governance value chain.
For instance, some initiatives focused completely on provision of services in a better way by setting up best-in-class front-end service delivery mechanisms; while others focused on improving efficiency in operations by streamlining their back-end processes and systems.
Only when these initiatives were successful in achieving the desired value from the targeted component, they looked at exploring the other aspects. Much of it was also attributed to the fact that many organisations were undergoing the learning curve, since not many of those initiatives were tested before in the country.
The intent of undertaking most of the e-Governance engagements initially was to provide citizen services in a better way; but it has slowly
changed over the last few years into increasing public sector efficiency, improving transparency and accountability in government functions, and allowing for cost savings in government administration.
ICT can help reinvent government in such a way that existing institutional arrangements can be restructured and new innovative arrangements can flourish, paving the way for a transformed government.
We have had e-Governance failures too. How can these be prevented?
Failure of many e-Governance projects in delivering the intended benefits is directly linked with the level of complexity of the projects. Also there is ample evidence to prove that the success or failure of an e-Governance initiative is as much a people issue as it is a technological issue.
Hence it is imperative for the governments to ensure that they lay strong emphasis on conceptualising a project keeping all its constituents and inter-dependencies in mind, and
follow a holistic implementation strategy which strives to deliver the right benefits to all stakeholders. This strategy should focus on exploring what’s possible, and then drive the change fighting with the existing set of challenges.
Technology, at the end of the day, should function as just an enabler and a tool to drive this change. The real benefit of e-Governance is not measured by the level of use of technology to simplify the operations, but by the
application of technology in bringing transformation and innovation in the government functioning, to enable ‘better governance.’
What can make the new paradigm of e-Governance successful?
The new approach indicates a change in the mindset of the government entities, where they share objectives across organisational boundaries,
instead of working solely within an organisation. This is an important step forward as it involves design and delivery of a wide range of policies, programmes and services that spill over the traditional departmental boundaries.
The earlier approach towards implementing e-Governance initiatives focused on provision of services, whereas the new ‘integrated-governance’ approach focuses on increasing the value of government services for the citizen.
This value enhancement is possible only when a consolidation happens in the way back-end systems and processes in the organisation work to bring about the front-end service delivery. The use of information technology helps governments in maximising that value, making services more efficient, more useful, more accessible and more responsive.Increasing investment in IT by government entities is fast becoming the need of the day, to ensure extension of service delivery into new delivery channels, automate and integrate the back-end systems, and set up of connectivity infrastructure to enable widespread reach of e-Governance. To realise the full value of these
investments, governments will have to bring greater coherence in the way different departments and agencies deliver citizen services.Departmental silo-based ICT infrastructure will have to give way to coordinated service delivery architecture to cost-effectively meet the citizens’ continually rising expectations of government service.
Major e-Governance Projects
Gyandoot
Gyandoot is an intranet in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, connecting rural cybercafes catering to the everyday needs of the masses. The web site is an extension of Gyandoot intranet, for giving global access. The site has these services to offer: Commodity/ mandi Marketing Information System; Copies of khasra, B1/khatauni and maps; On-line registration of applications; Income Certificate; Domicile Certificate (mool niwasi); Caste Certificate; Landholder's passbook of land rights and loans (Bhoo adhikar evam rin pustika).
Warana
The primary objective of the recently launched Wired Village project is to demonstrate the effective use of IT infrastructure in the accelerated socio-economic development of 70 villages around Warana Nagar in the Kolhapur and Sangli districts of the state of Maharashtra. The existing cooperative structure has been used in concert with high speed VSATs to allow,Internet access to existing cooperative societies. The project aims to provide agricultural, medical, and education information to villagers by establishing networked ‘facilitation booths' in the villages. The site features IT initiatives proposed by the Maharashtra government. These include Computerization of Government departments with very high public contact (e.g. sales tax, revenue, health, education, irrigation, PWD, etc.), Computerization of Government departments with very high public contact (e.g. sales tax, revenue, health, education, irrigation, PWD, etc.)
"RajNidhi": Information kiosks
"RajNidhi" is a web enabled information kiosk system developed jointly by Rajasthan state's Department of Information Technology and Rajasthan State Agency for Computer Services (RajComp). Earlier on March 23, 2000, Nayla became the first village of Rajasthan to have a "Raj Nidhi Information Kiosk" when the US President, Mr. Bill Clinton visited this village to observe the functioning of a Gram Panchayat.
"raj-SWIFT": Rajasthan government's Intranet
The Rajasthan State’s Department of Information Technology (DoIT) has developed Government’s own Intranet called as "raj-SWIFT". SWIFT here stands for Statewide Intranet on Fast Track. This system which has been built using Internet technology and tools, would facilitate online data, text and e-mail communication between the office
of the Chief Minister and all the 32 District Collectors on one-to-one basis, thus bringing the Chief Executive of the State and the district administration close enough to be just a mouse click away.
To overcome the inordinately long time required to obtain the statutory approvals/licences etc. from various government departments/agencies, the Bureau of Industrial Promotion & Office of the Commissioner (Investment & NRIs), Government of Rajasthan, has introduced a Single Window Clearance System through a Single Composite Application Form.
E-Governance in Kerala
The website of the department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions features an article on the e-governance initiatives adopted by the panchayats in Kerala. The Government of Kerala has launched a project titled PEARL (Package for Effective Administration of Registration Laws) for computerisation of the Registration Department in the State.Government of Kerala web portal, provides access to
government services by providing online application forms for services from various departments like the electricity board, revenue
department, corporations, public distribution system. Besides facilitating online application for grievance redressal, the site carries information of government machinery, contact details of elected representatives and a discussion forum. It also provides links to various govt., NGOs and educational institutions.
E-Governance in Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh to focus on IT-enabled services & e-governance, which would include medical transcription, call centres, data processing, back office operations and GIS.
E-Governance Centre at Haryana Secretariat
The Haryana Government has set up an e-governance centre at the Secretariat to effectively monitor information technology in the state.
Research Centres
Centre for Electronic Governance, Ministry of Information and Technology, Govt. of India
The MIT website features the Centre for e-governance set up by the Ministry of Information and Technology (MIT), Govt. of India. Apart from offering e-governance solutions and services, the Centre showcases applications by various IT majors like C-DAC, CMC, IQ Virtuals, Microsoft, NIC and Oracle. This list will expand soon. The Centre aims to offer services such as technical consultation, proof of concept and thematic presentations, apart from creating awareness amongst decision makers at the Central and State level and helping them in defining and implementing process and policy changes for effective e-Governance.
Centre for Electronic Communities
The IBM Centre for Electronic Communities, Institute for Electronic Government, is a leadership resource in strategy, policy and development of online resources in Government, education and healthcare.
Commonwealth Secretariat's Centre for Electronic Governance
As part of its activities on Public Services Management, as mandated by the Commonwealth Programme "Towards a New Public Administration", the Management and Training Services Division of the Commonwealth Secretariat has announced the launch of a special focus centre under the name of The Centre for Electronic Governance. Currently the Centre is a virtual organisational entity. The status of the Centre's physical manifestation is the subject of discussions and consultations with a number of organisations and institutions. However, the Centre's virtual presence is to be located the following URLs, for which the website is currently under construction:
http://www.electronic-gov.org; and http://www.elerctronic-gov.net
Websites of Indian central and state governments
National Informatics Centre
This is the site if a premier IT organization in India which provides state-of-the-art, solutions for the IT needs of the Government at all levels The NIC home page gives access to a comprehensive Directory(http://goidirectory.nic.in/) providing links to web sites of Government of India Ministries, Departments, States, Organizations, Union Territories.
Government of Delhi
The official website of the Delhi government provides a 'single window' for all the citizen’s information needs and queries regarding the various public services of the Delhi Government, ranging from obtaining a driving license to getting a marriage registration certificate made. The site provides all relevant application forms for downloading and printing.
E-Governance in Noida city
Compaq India has joined hands with Electronics Research and Development Centre of India (ERDCI), Noida, to set up a competence centre that would enable e-governance in Noida city and various other states. Residents will be able to pay electricity and phone bills, file I-T returns, register marriages and deaths, among other things at information kiosks located in the city. Once the project becomes fully operational citizens can pay utilities, get grievance redressal and a variety of
other essential jobs through these info kiosks.
Tiruvarur district Administration
This site is intended to assist Government departments and I.T users in various Government departments in TamilNadu and the rest of the country through online software and hardware consultancy service, free software downloads, sharing of experience in I.T development with reference to various fields in Government etc.
The site has been designed for maximum use for District Collectors for computerizing various
Government activities at district level such as Taluka (administrative unit) office automation, including land record computerization, Block office automation, DRDA automation, fair price shop computerization without use of computers or any other equipment at the fair price shop level and so on.
Parliament of India
Website of the Indian Parliament carries information on the proceedings of both the houses of the parliament, the Constitution of India, various budgets, resume of work, parliamentary debates, secretariats, committees and members of the houses, and links to other central and state government websites.
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances
This is a section of the website of the Department
of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances under the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and
Pensions of the Indian Government. It has well categorized links to E-Governance initiatives from around the world and a review of the Indian experience with E-Governance.
E-Governance in West Bengal
Official site of the West Bengal Govt. features the e-governance initiatives to be undertaken by the state govt. Initially for better citizen interface the following will be emphasized for computerization, viz., vehicle registration, land records, birth and death registrations, employment exchanges, payment of excise duty, sales tax and local tax, electronic bill payment of water and electricity, computerization of health records, relevant
education through internet, work of Police and Police Stations, Criminal Justice etc.
e-governance in Jammu & Kashmir:
Jammu and Kashmir government is yet to implement e-Governance across its various departments. The government should speed up the process in order to generate better job opportunities and serve the masses in a better way.
It is very sad to say that the future of the information technology professionals in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) is not very good as the state government does not have
a clear-cut policy to adopt the IT culture in the government departments. Only by giving the advertisements of e-Governance in the newspapers to gain the vote bank of the educated and professional class is not going to work in a long run.
It seems that the government is still confused how to implement the information technology structure in the various government departments.
The Central Government, however, already has its system in place. The Union Government had opened 135 community information centres in each block headquarter in J&K in 2004. The centres
implement information technology to bring high tech services at the door step of common people.
The centres are basically meant for public use and all the services are available at the nominal fee.
The facility of Internet is very useful for implementing the centrally sponsored schemes like National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The Internet facility directly links one office to another while ensuring fast and hassle free communication.
In spite of all good technology can do to governance, the state is not doing much to get hold of it J&K government should start the e-Governance from the basic level. The state is equipped with technically sound staff, working full time with various state government departments, which can be used to develop required techno-environment for the set-up.
Thus model for e-governance is a one-stop portal, where citizens have access to a variety of information and services. hence it is hoped that it will reinforce the connection between public officials and communities thereby leading to a stronger, more accountable and inclusive democracy.
MIRZA MOHAMMAD IDREES UL HAQ BEIGH
B.E, 1st SEMESTER, (ELECTRICAL)
MIET, KOTBHALWAL, JAMMU
MOBILE NO: +919419429085
Email:beighidi@gmail.com
Website: www.beighidi.bloggspot.com
e-governance
Governments around the world are changing, both because of the internal desire to be at par with the practices adopted by the private sector, and the aspirations of the citizens who are placing newer demands on the government. This change or transformation in the way governments function is often termed as e-Governance – a transformation in governance, enabled primarily by the adoption of ICT (information and communications technology). Simply put, e-Governance can help governments provide the following activity sets across various domains:
• Information dissemination – Information intended to be used at large by citizens and businesses is pushed over the Internet for easy and anywhere access.
• Two-way communication – A medium for dialogue between the government agency and the customer (citizens, businesses or other government agency) is provided where communication can take place across entities without the need for a physical visit.
• Transaction conduction – Government service request and processing including service delivery wherever possible is conducted electronically by the use of ICT.
• Governance – Governance aspects are streamlined and automated, viz. online polling, voting and campaigning.The anticipated benefits of e-governance include enhanced process efficiency, improved service delivery, better accessibility of public services, and increased transparency and accountability.
We also hear about ‘e-Government,’ at times…
It is essential to understand that e-Governance is not the same as e-Government. Both these terms are used synonymously many a time, although they are quite different, have differing audiences to cater to and different objectives to achieve. E-Government refers to the use of electronic technology to improve the business of government; whereas e-Governance is a wider concept that defines and assesses the impact technologies are having on the practice and administration of governments and the relationships between them and the wider society.
Haven’t we had successful e-Governance projects? What has changed?
True, we have had quite a few successful e-Governance initiatives in the country. If we look at the development of many of these, we will realise that they were conceptualised with specific focus on any one core aspect of the e-Governance value chain.
For instance, some initiatives focused completely on provision of services in a better way by setting up best-in-class front-end service delivery mechanisms; while others focused on improving efficiency in operations by streamlining their back-end processes and systems.
Only when these initiatives were successful in achieving the desired value from the targeted component, they looked at exploring the other aspects. Much of it was also attributed to the fact that many organisations were undergoing the learning curve, since not many of those initiatives were tested before in the country.
The intent of undertaking most of the e-Governance engagements initially was to provide citizen services in a better way; but it has slowly
changed over the last few years into increasing public sector efficiency, improving transparency and accountability in government functions, and allowing for cost savings in government administration.
ICT can help reinvent government in such a way that existing institutional arrangements can be restructured and new innovative arrangements can flourish, paving the way for a transformed government.
We have had e-Governance failures too. How can these be prevented?
Failure of many e-Governance projects in delivering the intended benefits is directly linked with the level of complexity of the projects. Also there is ample evidence to prove that the success or failure of an e-Governance initiative is as much a people issue as it is a technological issue.
Hence it is imperative for the governments to ensure that they lay strong emphasis on conceptualising a project keeping all its constituents and inter-dependencies in mind, and
follow a holistic implementation strategy which strives to deliver the right benefits to all stakeholders. This strategy should focus on exploring what’s possible, and then drive the change fighting with the existing set of challenges.
Technology, at the end of the day, should function as just an enabler and a tool to drive this change. The real benefit of e-Governance is not measured by the level of use of technology to simplify the operations, but by the
application of technology in bringing transformation and innovation in the government functioning, to enable ‘better governance.’
What can make the new paradigm of e-Governance successful?
The new approach indicates a change in the mindset of the government entities, where they share objectives across organisational boundaries,
instead of working solely within an organisation. This is an important step forward as it involves design and delivery of a wide range of policies, programmes and services that spill over the traditional departmental boundaries.
The earlier approach towards implementing e-Governance initiatives focused on provision of services, whereas the new ‘integrated-governance’ approach focuses on increasing the value of government services for the citizen.
This value enhancement is possible only when a consolidation happens in the way back-end systems and processes in the organisation work to bring about the front-end service delivery. The use of information technology helps governments in maximising that value, making services more efficient, more useful, more accessible and more responsive.Increasing investment in IT by government entities is fast becoming the need of the day, to ensure extension of service delivery into new delivery channels, automate and integrate the back-end systems, and set up of connectivity infrastructure to enable widespread reach of e-Governance. To realise the full value of these
investments, governments will have to bring greater coherence in the way different departments and agencies deliver citizen services.Departmental silo-based ICT infrastructure will have to give way to coordinated service delivery architecture to cost-effectively meet the citizens’ continually rising expectations of government service.
Major e-Governance Projects
Gyandoot
Gyandoot is an intranet in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, connecting rural cybercafes catering to the everyday needs of the masses. The web site is an extension of Gyandoot intranet, for giving global access. The site has these services to offer: Commodity/ mandi Marketing Information System; Copies of khasra, B1/khatauni and maps; On-line registration of applications; Income Certificate; Domicile Certificate (mool niwasi); Caste Certificate; Landholder's passbook of land rights and loans (Bhoo adhikar evam rin pustika).
Warana
The primary objective of the recently launched Wired Village project is to demonstrate the effective use of IT infrastructure in the accelerated socio-economic development of 70 villages around Warana Nagar in the Kolhapur and Sangli districts of the state of Maharashtra. The existing cooperative structure has been used in concert with high speed VSATs to allow,Internet access to existing cooperative societies. The project aims to provide agricultural, medical, and education information to villagers by establishing networked ‘facilitation booths' in the villages. The site features IT initiatives proposed by the Maharashtra government. These include Computerization of Government departments with very high public contact (e.g. sales tax, revenue, health, education, irrigation, PWD, etc.), Computerization of Government departments with very high public contact (e.g. sales tax, revenue, health, education, irrigation, PWD, etc.)
"RajNidhi": Information kiosks
"RajNidhi" is a web enabled information kiosk system developed jointly by Rajasthan state's Department of Information Technology and Rajasthan State Agency for Computer Services (RajComp). Earlier on March 23, 2000, Nayla became the first village of Rajasthan to have a "Raj Nidhi Information Kiosk" when the US President, Mr. Bill Clinton visited this village to observe the functioning of a Gram Panchayat.
"raj-SWIFT": Rajasthan government's Intranet
The Rajasthan State’s Department of Information Technology (DoIT) has developed Government’s own Intranet called as "raj-SWIFT". SWIFT here stands for Statewide Intranet on Fast Track. This system which has been built using Internet technology and tools, would facilitate online data, text and e-mail communication between the office
of the Chief Minister and all the 32 District Collectors on one-to-one basis, thus bringing the Chief Executive of the State and the district administration close enough to be just a mouse click away.
To overcome the inordinately long time required to obtain the statutory approvals/licences etc. from various government departments/agencies, the Bureau of Industrial Promotion & Office of the Commissioner (Investment & NRIs), Government of Rajasthan, has introduced a Single Window Clearance System through a Single Composite Application Form.
E-Governance in Kerala
The website of the department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions features an article on the e-governance initiatives adopted by the panchayats in Kerala. The Government of Kerala has launched a project titled PEARL (Package for Effective Administration of Registration Laws) for computerisation of the Registration Department in the State.Government of Kerala web portal, provides access to
government services by providing online application forms for services from various departments like the electricity board, revenue
department, corporations, public distribution system. Besides facilitating online application for grievance redressal, the site carries information of government machinery, contact details of elected representatives and a discussion forum. It also provides links to various govt., NGOs and educational institutions.
E-Governance in Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh to focus on IT-enabled services & e-governance, which would include medical transcription, call centres, data processing, back office operations and GIS.
E-Governance Centre at Haryana Secretariat
The Haryana Government has set up an e-governance centre at the Secretariat to effectively monitor information technology in the state.
Research Centres
Centre for Electronic Governance, Ministry of Information and Technology, Govt. of India
The MIT website features the Centre for e-governance set up by the Ministry of Information and Technology (MIT), Govt. of India. Apart from offering e-governance solutions and services, the Centre showcases applications by various IT majors like C-DAC, CMC, IQ Virtuals, Microsoft, NIC and Oracle. This list will expand soon. The Centre aims to offer services such as technical consultation, proof of concept and thematic presentations, apart from creating awareness amongst decision makers at the Central and State level and helping them in defining and implementing process and policy changes for effective e-Governance.
Centre for Electronic Communities
The IBM Centre for Electronic Communities, Institute for Electronic Government, is a leadership resource in strategy, policy and development of online resources in Government, education and healthcare.
Commonwealth Secretariat's Centre for Electronic Governance
As part of its activities on Public Services Management, as mandated by the Commonwealth Programme "Towards a New Public Administration", the Management and Training Services Division of the Commonwealth Secretariat has announced the launch of a special focus centre under the name of The Centre for Electronic Governance. Currently the Centre is a virtual organisational entity. The status of the Centre's physical manifestation is the subject of discussions and consultations with a number of organisations and institutions. However, the Centre's virtual presence is to be located the following URLs, for which the website is currently under construction:
http://www.electronic-gov.org; and http://www.elerctronic-gov.net
Websites of Indian central and state governments
National Informatics Centre
This is the site if a premier IT organization in India which provides state-of-the-art, solutions for the IT needs of the Government at all levels The NIC home page gives access to a comprehensive Directory(http://goidirectory.nic.in/) providing links to web sites of Government of India Ministries, Departments, States, Organizations, Union Territories.
Government of Delhi
The official website of the Delhi government provides a 'single window' for all the citizen’s information needs and queries regarding the various public services of the Delhi Government, ranging from obtaining a driving license to getting a marriage registration certificate made. The site provides all relevant application forms for downloading and printing.
E-Governance in Noida city
Compaq India has joined hands with Electronics Research and Development Centre of India (ERDCI), Noida, to set up a competence centre that would enable e-governance in Noida city and various other states. Residents will be able to pay electricity and phone bills, file I-T returns, register marriages and deaths, among other things at information kiosks located in the city. Once the project becomes fully operational citizens can pay utilities, get grievance redressal and a variety of
other essential jobs through these info kiosks.
Tiruvarur district Administration
This site is intended to assist Government departments and I.T users in various Government departments in TamilNadu and the rest of the country through online software and hardware consultancy service, free software downloads, sharing of experience in I.T development with reference to various fields in Government etc.
The site has been designed for maximum use for District Collectors for computerizing various
Government activities at district level such as Taluka (administrative unit) office automation, including land record computerization, Block office automation, DRDA automation, fair price shop computerization without use of computers or any other equipment at the fair price shop level and so on.
Parliament of India
Website of the Indian Parliament carries information on the proceedings of both the houses of the parliament, the Constitution of India, various budgets, resume of work, parliamentary debates, secretariats, committees and members of the houses, and links to other central and state government websites.
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances
This is a section of the website of the Department
of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances under the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and
Pensions of the Indian Government. It has well categorized links to E-Governance initiatives from around the world and a review of the Indian experience with E-Governance.
E-Governance in West Bengal
Official site of the West Bengal Govt. features the e-governance initiatives to be undertaken by the state govt. Initially for better citizen interface the following will be emphasized for computerization, viz., vehicle registration, land records, birth and death registrations, employment exchanges, payment of excise duty, sales tax and local tax, electronic bill payment of water and electricity, computerization of health records, relevant
education through internet, work of Police and Police Stations, Criminal Justice etc.
e-governance in Jammu & Kashmir:
Jammu and Kashmir government is yet to implement e-Governance across its various departments. The government should speed up the process in order to generate better job opportunities and serve the masses in a better way.
It is very sad to say that the future of the information technology professionals in Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) is not very good as the state government does not have
a clear-cut policy to adopt the IT culture in the government departments. Only by giving the advertisements of e-Governance in the newspapers to gain the vote bank of the educated and professional class is not going to work in a long run.
It seems that the government is still confused how to implement the information technology structure in the various government departments.
The Central Government, however, already has its system in place. The Union Government had opened 135 community information centres in each block headquarter in J&K in 2004. The centres
implement information technology to bring high tech services at the door step of common people.
The centres are basically meant for public use and all the services are available at the nominal fee.
The facility of Internet is very useful for implementing the centrally sponsored schemes like National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The Internet facility directly links one office to another while ensuring fast and hassle free communication.
In spite of all good technology can do to governance, the state is not doing much to get hold of it J&K government should start the e-Governance from the basic level. The state is equipped with technically sound staff, working full time with various state government departments, which can be used to develop required techno-environment for the set-up.
Thus model for e-governance is a one-stop portal, where citizens have access to a variety of information and services. hence it is hoped that it will reinforce the connection between public officials and communities thereby leading to a stronger, more accountable and inclusive democracy.
all about missiles
Guided missile
A guided missile is a self-propelled projectile used as a weapon. Missiles are typically propelled by rockets or jet engines. Missiles generally have an explosive warhead, although other weapon types may also be used.
Etymology
The word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, literally meaning "to send".
In common military parlance, the word missile describes a powered, guided munition, whilst the word "rocket" describes a powered, unguided munition. Unpowered, guided munitions are known as guided bombs. A common further sub-division is to consider ballistic missile to mean a munition that follows a ballistic trajectory and cruise missile to describe a munition that generates lift.
Technology
Guided missiles have a number of different system components:
* targeting and/or guidance
* flight system
* engine
* warhead
Guidance Systems
Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infra-red, lasers or radio waves, to guide the missile onto its target. This radiation may emanate from the target (such as the heat of an engine or the radio waves from an enemy radar), it may be provided by the missile itself (such as a radar) or it may be provided by a friendly third party (such as the radar of the launch vehicle/platform, or a laser designator operated by friendly infantry). The first two are often known as fire and forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV camera - using either visible light or infra-red - in order to see the target. The picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target, or by a computer doing much the same job. Many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods, to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement.
Targeting Systems
Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target, and using a guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or GPS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a human operator who can see the target and the missile, and guides it using either cable or radio based remote-control.
Flight System
Whether a guided missile uses a targeting system, a guidance system or both, it needs a flight system. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight, allowing it to counter inaccuracies in the missile or to follow a moving target. There are two main systems: vectored thrust (for missiles that are powered throughout the guidance phase of their flight) and aerodynamic maneuvering (wings, fins, canards, etc).
Engine
Missiles are powered by an engine, generally either a type of rocket or jet engine. Rockets are generally of the solid fuel type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment, although some larger ballistic missiles use liquid fuel rockets. Jet engines are generally used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, due to it's relative simplicity and low frontal area. Ramjets are the only other common form of jet engine propulsion, although any type of jet engine could theoretically be used. Missiles often have multiple engine stages, particularly in those launched from the ground - these stages may all be of similar types or may include a mix of engine types.
Warhead
The warhead or warheads of a missile provides its primary destructive power (many missiles have extensive secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and unburnt fuel that may be onboard). Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets. Other warhead types include submunitions, incendiaries, nuclear weapons, chemical, biological or radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators.
Early development
The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of German missiles of WW2. Most famous of these are the V1 and V2, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control system directed by the operator. However, these early systems had a high failure rate so they were very unreliable.
Basic roles
Missiles are generally categorized by their launch platform and intended target - in broadest terms these will either be surface (ground or water) and air, and then sub-categorized by range and the exact target type (such as anti-tank or anti-ship). Many weapons are designed to be launched from both surface or the air, and a few are designed to attack either surface or air targets (such as the ADATS missile). Most weapons require some modification in order to be launched from the air or ground, such as adding boosters to the ground launched version.
Surface to Surface/Air to Surface
Ballistic missiles
After the boost-stage, ballistic missiles follow a trajectory mainly determined by ballistics. The guidance is for relatively small deviations from that.
Ballistic missiles are largely used for land attack missions. Although normally associated with nuclear weapons, some conventionally armed ballistic missiles are in service, such as ATACMS. The V2 had demonstrated that a ballistic missile could deliver a warhead to a target city with no possibility of interception, and the introduction of nuclear weapons meant it could do useful damage when it arrived. The accuracy of these systems was fairly poor, but post-war development by most military forces improved the basic inertial platform concept to the point where it could be used as the guidance system on ICBMs flying thousands of miles. Today the ballistic missile represents the only strategic deterrent in most military forces; the USAFs continued support of manned bombers is considered by some to be entirely political in nature.[citation needed] Ballistic missiles are primarily surface launched, with air launch being theoretically possible using a weapon such as the canceled Skybolt missile.
Cruise missiles
The V1 had been successfully intercepted during the Second World War, but this did not make the cruise missile concept entirely useless. After the war, the US deployed a small number of nuclear-armed cruise missiles in Germany, but these were considered to be of limited usefulness. Continued research into much longer ranged and faster versions led to the US's Navaho missile, and its Soviet counterparts, the Burya and Buran cruise missile. However, these were rendered largely obsolete by the ICBM, and none was used operationally. Shorter-range developments have become widely used as highly accurate attack systems, such as the US Tomahawk missile or the German Taurus missile.
Cruise missiles are generally associated with land attack operations, but also have an important role as anti shipping weapons. They are primarily launched from air, sea or submarine platforms in both roles, although land based launchers also exist.
Anti-shipping
Another major German missile development project was the anti-shipping class (such as the Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293), intended to stop any attempt at a cross-channel invasion. However the British were able to render their systems useless by jamming their radios, and missiles with wire guidance were not ready by D-Day. After the war the anti-shipping class slowly developed, and became a major class in the 1960s with the introduction of the low-flying turbojet powered cruise missiles known as "sea-skimmers". These became famous during the Falklands War when an Argentine Exocet missile sank a Royal Navy destroyer.
A number of anti-submarine missiles also exist; these generally use the missile in order to deliver another weapon system such as a torpedo or depth charge to the location of the submarine, at which point the other weapon will conduct the underwater phase of the mission.
Anti-tank
PARS 3 LR, a modern anti-tank fire-and-forget missile of the German Army
By the end of WWII all forces had widely introduced unguided rockets using HEAT warheads as their major anti-tank weapon (see Panzerfaust, Bazooka). However these had a limited useful range of a 100 m or so, and the Germans were looking to extend this with the use of a missile using wire guidance, the X-7. After the war this became a major design class in the later 1950s, and by the 1960s had developed into practically the only non-tank anti-tank system in general use. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and Egypt, the 9M14 Malyutka (aka "Sagger") man-portable anti-tank missile proved potent against Israeli tanks. While other guidance systems have been tried, the basic reliability of wire-guidance means this will remain the primary means of controlling anti-tank missile in the near future. Anti tank missiles may be launched from aircraft, vehicles or by ground troops in the case of smaller weapons.
Surface to Air
Anti-Aircraft
The Stinger shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile system.
By 1944 US and British air forces were sending huge air fleets over occupied Europe, increasing the pressure on the Luftwaffe day and night fighter forces. The Germans were keen to get some sort of useful ground-based anti-aircraft system into operation. Several systems were under development, but none had reached operational status before the war's end. The US Navy also started missile research to deal with the Kamikaze threat. By 1950 systems based on this early research started to reach operational service, including the US Army's Nike Ajax, the Navy's "3T's" (Talos, Terrier, Tartar), and soon followed by the Soviet S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina and French and British systems. Anti-aircraft weapons exist for virtually every possible launch platform, with surface launched systems ranging from huge, self propelled or ship mounted launchers to man portable systems.
Anti-ballistic
Like most missiles, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot for defense against short-range missiles, carry explosives.
However, in the case of a large closing speed, a projectile without explosives is used, just a collision is sufficient to destroy the target.
Air-to-air
A modern IRIS-T air-to-air missile of the German Luftwaffe.
Soviet RS-82 rockets were successfully tested in combat at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939.
German experience in WWII demonstrated that destroying a large aircraft was quite difficult, and they had invested considerable effort into air-to-air missile systems to do this. Their Me262's jets often carried R4M rockets, and other types of "bomber destroyer" aircraft had unguided rockets as well. In the post-war period the R4M served as the pattern for a number of similar systems, used by almost all interceptor aircraft during the 1940s and '50s. Lacking guidance systems, such rockets had to be carefully aimed at relatively close range to successfully hit the target. The US Navy and USAF began deploying guided missiles in the early 1950s, most famous being the US Navy's AIM-9 Sidewinder and USAF's AIM-4 Falcon. These systems have continued to advance, and modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. In the Falklands War technically inferior British Harriers were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents using AIM-9G missiles provided by the United States as the conflict began. The latest heat-seeking designs can lock onto a target from various angles, not just from behind, where the heat signature from the engines is strongest. Other types rely on radar guidance (either on-board or "painted" by the launching aircraft). Air to Air missiles also have a wide range of sizes, ranging from helicopter launched self defense weapons with a range of a few miles, to long range weapons designed for interceptor aircraft such as the Phoenix missile.
Anti-satellite weapon (ASAT)
The proposed Brilliant Pebbles defense system during the 1980s would use kinetic energy collisions without explosives. Anti satellite weapons may be launched either by an aircraft or a surface platform, depending on the design. To date, only a few known tests have occured.
Guidance systems
Missile guidance systems generally fall into a number of basic classes, each one associated with a particular role. Modern electronics has allowed systems to be mixed on a single airframe, dramatically increasing the capabilities of the missiles.
The missile's target accuracy is a critical factor for its effectiveness. Guidance systems improve missile accuracy by improving its "Single Shot Kill Probability" (SSKP).
These guidance technologies can generally be divided up into a number of categories, with the broadest categories being "active," "passive" and "preset" guidance’s. Missiles and guided bombs generally use similar types of guidance system, the difference between the two being that missiles are powered by an onboard engine, whereas guided bombs rely on the speed and height of the launch aircraft for propulsion.
Categories of guidance systems
Guidance systems are divided into different categories according to what type of target they are designed for - either fixed targets or moving targets. The weapons can be divided into two broad categories, Go-Onto-Target (GOT) and Go-Onto-Location-in-Space (GOLIS) guidance systems.[citation needed] A GOT missile can target either a moving or fixed target, whereas a GOLIS weapon is limited to a stationary or near-stationary target. The trajectory that a missile takes while attacking a moving target is dependent upon the movement of the target. Also, a moving target can be an immediate threat to the sender of the missile. The target needs to be eliminated in a timely fashion in order to preserve the integrity of the sender. In GOLIS systems the problem is simpler because the target is not moving.
GOT systems
In every GOT system there are three subsystems:
* Target tracker
* Missile tracker
* Guidance computer
The way these three subsystems are distributed between the missile and the launcher result in two different categories:
* Remote Control Guidance: The guidance computer is on the launcher. The target tracker is also placed on the launching platform.
* Homing Guidance: The guidance computers are in the missile and in the target tracker.
Remote control guidance
These guidance systems usually need the use of radars and a radio or wired link between the control point and the missile; in other words, the trajectory is controlled with the information transmitted via radio or wire.
System include
* Command Guidance - The missile tracker is on the launching platform. These missiles are totally controlled by the launching platform that sends all control orders to the missile. The 2 variants are
* Command to Line-Of-Sight (CLOS)
* Command Off Line-Of-Sight (COLOS)
* Line-Of-Sight Beam Riding Guidance (LOSBR) - The missile tracker is on board the missile. It has already some orientation capability, in order to fly inside the beam that the launching platform is using to illuminate the target. It can be manual or automatic.[1]
Command to Line-Of-Sight (CLOS)
The CLOS system uses only the angular coordinates between the missile and the target to ensure the collision. The missile will have to be in the line of sight between the launcher and the target (LOS), correcting any deviation of the missile in relation to this line. Due to the amount of missiles that use this guidance system, they are usually are subdivided into four groups:
* Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (MCLOS), The target tracking and the missile tracking and control is performed manually. The operator watches the missile flight and uses some sort of signaling system to command the missile back into the straight line between the operator and the target (the "line of sight"). Typically useful only for slower targets where significant "lead" is not required. MCLOS is a subtype of command guided systems. In the case of glide bombs missiles against ships or the supersonic Wasserfall against slow-moving B-17 Flying Fortress bombers this system worked fine, but as speeds increased MCLOS was quickly rendered useless for most roles.
* Semi-Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (SMCLOS), The target tracking is automatic and the missile tracking and control is manual
* Semi-Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (SACLOS), The target tracking is manual and the missile tracking and control is automatic. Is similar to MCLOS but some automatic system positions the missile in the line of sight while the operator simply tracks the target. *SACLOS has the advantage of allowing the missile to start in a position invisible to the user, as well as generally being considerably easier to operate. SACLOS is the most common form of guidance against ground targets such as tanks and bunkers.
* Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (ACLOS), The target tracking, missile tracking and control are automatic.
Command Off Line-Of-Sight (COLOS)
This guidance system was one of the first to be used and still is in service, mainly in anti-aircraft missiles. In this system, the missile tracker and the target tracker can be oriented in different directions. The guidance system ensures the interception missile-target by locate both in space. This means that they will not rely on the angular coordinates like in CLOS systems. They will need another coordinate which is distance. To make it possible, both target and missile trackers have to be active. They are always automatic and the radar has been used as the only sensor in these systems. The SM-2MR Standard is inertially guided during its midcourse phase, but it is assisted by a COLOS system via radar link provided by the AN/SPY-1 radar installed in the launching platform.
Line-Of-Sight Beam Riding Guidance (LOSBR)
LOSBR uses a "beam" of some sort, typically radio, radar or laser, is pointed at the target and detectors on the rear of the missile keep it centered in the beam. Beam riding systems are often SACLOS, but don't have to be; in other systems the beam is part of an automated radar tracking system. A case in point is later versions of the RIM-8 Talos missile as used in Vietnam - the radar beam was used to take the missile on a high arcing flight and then gradually brought down in the vertical plane of the target aircraft, the more accurate SARH homing being used at the last moment for the actual strike. This gave the enemy pilot the least possible warning that his aircraft was being illuminated by missile guidance radar, as opposed to search radar. This is an important distinction, as the nature of the signal differs, and is used as a cue for evasive action.
LOSBR suffers from the inherent weakness of inaccuracy with increasing range as the beam spreads out. Laser beam riders are more accurate in this regards, but are all short-range, and even the laser can be degraded by bad weather. On the other hand, SARH becomes more accurate with decreasing distance to the target, so the two systems are complementary
Homing guidance
Active homing
Active homing uses a radar system on the missile to provide a guidance signal. Typically electronics in the missile keep the radar pointed directly at the target, and the missile then looks at this "angle" of its own centerline to guide itself. Radar resolution is based on the size of the antenna, so in a smaller missile these systems are useful for attacking only large targets, ships or large bombers for instance. Active radar systems remain in widespread use in anti-shipping missiles, and in "fire-and-forget" air-to-air missile systems such as AMRAAM and R-77
Semi-active homing
Semi-active homing systems combine a radar receiver on the missile with a radar broadcaster located "elsewhere". Since the missile is typically being launched after the target was detected using a powerful radar system, it makes sense to use that same radar system to track the target, thereby avoiding problems with resolution or power. SARH is by far the most common "all weather" guidance solution for anti-aircraft systems, both ground and air launched. SALH is a similar system using a laser as a signal. It has the disadvantage for air-launched systems that the launch aircraft must keep moving towards the target in order to maintain radar and guidance lock. This has the potential to bring it within range of shorter-ranged IR-guided missile systems, an important consideration now that "all aspect" IR missiles are capable of "kills" from head on, something which did not prevail in the early days of guided missiles. For ships and mobile or fixed ground-based systems, this is irrelevant as the speed (and often size) of the launch platform precludes "running away" from the target or opening the range so as to make the enemy attack fail.
Passive homing
Infrared homing is a passive system in which heat generated by the target is detected and homed on. Typically used in the anti-aircraft role to track the heat of jet engines, it has also been used in the anti-vehicle role with some success. This means of guidance is sometimes also referred to as "heat seeking".
Contrast seekers use a television camera, typically black and white, to image a field of view in front of the missile, which is presented to the operator. When launched, the electronics in the missile look for the spot on the image where the contrast changes the fastest, both vertically and horizontally, and then attempts to keep that spot at a constant location in its view. Contrast seekers have been used for air-to-ground missiles, including the famous AGM-65 Maverick, because most ground targets can be distinguished only by visual means. However they rely on there being strong contrast changes to track, and even traditional camouflage can render them unable to "lock on".
Retransmission homing
Main article: Track-via-missile
Retransmission homing, also called Track Via Missile(TVM), is a hybrid between command guidance, semi-active radar homing and active radar homing. The missile picks up radiation broadcast by the tracking radar which bounces off the target and relays it to the tracking station, which relays commands back to the missile.
GOLIS systems
Whatever the GOLIS guidance system, it must contain preset information about the target. These systems' main characteristic is the lack of target tracker. The guidance computer and the missile tracker are located in the missile. There is only one type of guidance system of this kind: Navigational Guidance.
Navigational guidance is any type of guidance executed by a system without target tracker. The other two units are on board the missile. These systems are also known as Self Contained Guidance Systems, however they're not always entirely autonomous due to the missile trackers used. They are subdivided function of their missile tracker's type:
* Entirely autonomous - Systems where the missile tracker is not dependent of any navigation external source, and can be divided in:
* Inertial Guidance
* With gyro-stabilized platform
* With strapdown platform
* Preset Guidance
* Dependent on natural sources - Navigational guidance systems where the missile tracker depends of some external source that is provided by nature:
* Celestial Guidance
* Terrestrial Guidance
* Topographic Reconnaissance (Ex: TERCOM)
* Photographic Reconnaissance (Ex: DSMAC)
* Magnetic Guidance
* Dependent on artificial sources - Navigational guidance systems where the missile tracker depends of some external source that is provided by any artificial means:
* Satellite Navigation
* Global Positioning System (GPS)
* GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
* Hyperbolic Navigation
* DECCA
* LORAN C
Inertial guidance
Main article: inertial guidance
Inertial Guidance uses sensitive measurement devices to calculate the location of the missile due to the acceleration put on it after leaving a known position. Early mechanical systems were not very accurate, and required some sort of external adjustment to allow them to hit targets even the size of a city. Modern systems use solid state ring laser gyros that are accurate to within metres over ranges of 10,000km, and no longer require additional inputs. Gyroscope development has culminated in the AIRS found on the MX missile, allowing for an accuracy of less than 100m at intercontinental ranges. Many civilian aircraft use inertial guidance using the ring laser gyroscope, which is less accurate than the mechanical systems found in ICBMs, but which provide an inexpensive means of attaining a fairly accurate fix on location (when most airliners such as Boeing's 707 and 747 were designed, GPS was not the widely commercially available means of tracking that it is today). Today guided weapons can use a combination of INS, GPS and radar terrain mapping to achieve extremely high levels of accuracy such as that found in modern cruise missiles.[citation needed]
Preset guidance
Preset guidance is the simplest type of missile guidance. From the distance and direction of the target, the trajectory of the flight path is determined. Before firing, this information is programmed into the missile's guidance system, which, during flight, maneuvers the missile to follow that path. All the guidance components (including sensors such as accelerometers or gyroscopes) are contained within the missile, and no outside information (such as radio instructions) is used. An example of a missile using Preset Guidance is the V-2 rocket.[2]
Celestial guidance
Celestial guidance was first used in the American Poseidon missile and uses star positioning to fine-tune the accuracy of the inertial guidance system after launch. As the accuracy of a ballistic missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the rocket at any given moment during its boost phase, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy. In the Polaris system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position (it is believed that the missiles from Soviet submarines would track two separate stars to achieve this), if it was not quite aligned to where it should be then this would indicate that the inertial system was not precisely on target and a correction would be made.
Terrestrial guidance
TERCOM, for "terrain contour matching", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes the view, and compares it to stored scenes in an onboard computer to guide the missile to its target.
DSMAC is reputed to be so precise that destruction of prominent buildings in the internal map of the system (by preceding cruise missiles, among other things!) will spoil navigation.
A guided missile is a self-propelled projectile used as a weapon. Missiles are typically propelled by rockets or jet engines. Missiles generally have an explosive warhead, although other weapon types may also be used.
Etymology
The word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, literally meaning "to send".
In common military parlance, the word missile describes a powered, guided munition, whilst the word "rocket" describes a powered, unguided munition. Unpowered, guided munitions are known as guided bombs. A common further sub-division is to consider ballistic missile to mean a munition that follows a ballistic trajectory and cruise missile to describe a munition that generates lift.
Technology
Guided missiles have a number of different system components:
* targeting and/or guidance
* flight system
* engine
* warhead
Guidance Systems
Missiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infra-red, lasers or radio waves, to guide the missile onto its target. This radiation may emanate from the target (such as the heat of an engine or the radio waves from an enemy radar), it may be provided by the missile itself (such as a radar) or it may be provided by a friendly third party (such as the radar of the launch vehicle/platform, or a laser designator operated by friendly infantry). The first two are often known as fire and forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV camera - using either visible light or infra-red - in order to see the target. The picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target, or by a computer doing much the same job. Many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods, to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement.
Targeting Systems
Another method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target, and using a guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or GPS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a human operator who can see the target and the missile, and guides it using either cable or radio based remote-control.
Flight System
Whether a guided missile uses a targeting system, a guidance system or both, it needs a flight system. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight, allowing it to counter inaccuracies in the missile or to follow a moving target. There are two main systems: vectored thrust (for missiles that are powered throughout the guidance phase of their flight) and aerodynamic maneuvering (wings, fins, canards, etc).
Engine
Missiles are powered by an engine, generally either a type of rocket or jet engine. Rockets are generally of the solid fuel type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment, although some larger ballistic missiles use liquid fuel rockets. Jet engines are generally used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, due to it's relative simplicity and low frontal area. Ramjets are the only other common form of jet engine propulsion, although any type of jet engine could theoretically be used. Missiles often have multiple engine stages, particularly in those launched from the ground - these stages may all be of similar types or may include a mix of engine types.
Warhead
The warhead or warheads of a missile provides its primary destructive power (many missiles have extensive secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and unburnt fuel that may be onboard). Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets. Other warhead types include submunitions, incendiaries, nuclear weapons, chemical, biological or radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators.
Early development
The first missiles to be used operationally were a series of German missiles of WW2. Most famous of these are the V1 and V2, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control system directed by the operator. However, these early systems had a high failure rate so they were very unreliable.
Basic roles
Missiles are generally categorized by their launch platform and intended target - in broadest terms these will either be surface (ground or water) and air, and then sub-categorized by range and the exact target type (such as anti-tank or anti-ship). Many weapons are designed to be launched from both surface or the air, and a few are designed to attack either surface or air targets (such as the ADATS missile). Most weapons require some modification in order to be launched from the air or ground, such as adding boosters to the ground launched version.
Surface to Surface/Air to Surface
Ballistic missiles
After the boost-stage, ballistic missiles follow a trajectory mainly determined by ballistics. The guidance is for relatively small deviations from that.
Ballistic missiles are largely used for land attack missions. Although normally associated with nuclear weapons, some conventionally armed ballistic missiles are in service, such as ATACMS. The V2 had demonstrated that a ballistic missile could deliver a warhead to a target city with no possibility of interception, and the introduction of nuclear weapons meant it could do useful damage when it arrived. The accuracy of these systems was fairly poor, but post-war development by most military forces improved the basic inertial platform concept to the point where it could be used as the guidance system on ICBMs flying thousands of miles. Today the ballistic missile represents the only strategic deterrent in most military forces; the USAFs continued support of manned bombers is considered by some to be entirely political in nature.[citation needed] Ballistic missiles are primarily surface launched, with air launch being theoretically possible using a weapon such as the canceled Skybolt missile.
Cruise missiles
The V1 had been successfully intercepted during the Second World War, but this did not make the cruise missile concept entirely useless. After the war, the US deployed a small number of nuclear-armed cruise missiles in Germany, but these were considered to be of limited usefulness. Continued research into much longer ranged and faster versions led to the US's Navaho missile, and its Soviet counterparts, the Burya and Buran cruise missile. However, these were rendered largely obsolete by the ICBM, and none was used operationally. Shorter-range developments have become widely used as highly accurate attack systems, such as the US Tomahawk missile or the German Taurus missile.
Cruise missiles are generally associated with land attack operations, but also have an important role as anti shipping weapons. They are primarily launched from air, sea or submarine platforms in both roles, although land based launchers also exist.
Anti-shipping
Another major German missile development project was the anti-shipping class (such as the Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293), intended to stop any attempt at a cross-channel invasion. However the British were able to render their systems useless by jamming their radios, and missiles with wire guidance were not ready by D-Day. After the war the anti-shipping class slowly developed, and became a major class in the 1960s with the introduction of the low-flying turbojet powered cruise missiles known as "sea-skimmers". These became famous during the Falklands War when an Argentine Exocet missile sank a Royal Navy destroyer.
A number of anti-submarine missiles also exist; these generally use the missile in order to deliver another weapon system such as a torpedo or depth charge to the location of the submarine, at which point the other weapon will conduct the underwater phase of the mission.
Anti-tank
PARS 3 LR, a modern anti-tank fire-and-forget missile of the German Army
By the end of WWII all forces had widely introduced unguided rockets using HEAT warheads as their major anti-tank weapon (see Panzerfaust, Bazooka). However these had a limited useful range of a 100 m or so, and the Germans were looking to extend this with the use of a missile using wire guidance, the X-7. After the war this became a major design class in the later 1950s, and by the 1960s had developed into practically the only non-tank anti-tank system in general use. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and Egypt, the 9M14 Malyutka (aka "Sagger") man-portable anti-tank missile proved potent against Israeli tanks. While other guidance systems have been tried, the basic reliability of wire-guidance means this will remain the primary means of controlling anti-tank missile in the near future. Anti tank missiles may be launched from aircraft, vehicles or by ground troops in the case of smaller weapons.
Surface to Air
Anti-Aircraft
The Stinger shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile system.
By 1944 US and British air forces were sending huge air fleets over occupied Europe, increasing the pressure on the Luftwaffe day and night fighter forces. The Germans were keen to get some sort of useful ground-based anti-aircraft system into operation. Several systems were under development, but none had reached operational status before the war's end. The US Navy also started missile research to deal with the Kamikaze threat. By 1950 systems based on this early research started to reach operational service, including the US Army's Nike Ajax, the Navy's "3T's" (Talos, Terrier, Tartar), and soon followed by the Soviet S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina and French and British systems. Anti-aircraft weapons exist for virtually every possible launch platform, with surface launched systems ranging from huge, self propelled or ship mounted launchers to man portable systems.
Anti-ballistic
Like most missiles, the Arrow missile and MIM-104 Patriot for defense against short-range missiles, carry explosives.
However, in the case of a large closing speed, a projectile without explosives is used, just a collision is sufficient to destroy the target.
Air-to-air
A modern IRIS-T air-to-air missile of the German Luftwaffe.
Soviet RS-82 rockets were successfully tested in combat at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939.
German experience in WWII demonstrated that destroying a large aircraft was quite difficult, and they had invested considerable effort into air-to-air missile systems to do this. Their Me262's jets often carried R4M rockets, and other types of "bomber destroyer" aircraft had unguided rockets as well. In the post-war period the R4M served as the pattern for a number of similar systems, used by almost all interceptor aircraft during the 1940s and '50s. Lacking guidance systems, such rockets had to be carefully aimed at relatively close range to successfully hit the target. The US Navy and USAF began deploying guided missiles in the early 1950s, most famous being the US Navy's AIM-9 Sidewinder and USAF's AIM-4 Falcon. These systems have continued to advance, and modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. In the Falklands War technically inferior British Harriers were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents using AIM-9G missiles provided by the United States as the conflict began. The latest heat-seeking designs can lock onto a target from various angles, not just from behind, where the heat signature from the engines is strongest. Other types rely on radar guidance (either on-board or "painted" by the launching aircraft). Air to Air missiles also have a wide range of sizes, ranging from helicopter launched self defense weapons with a range of a few miles, to long range weapons designed for interceptor aircraft such as the Phoenix missile.
Anti-satellite weapon (ASAT)
The proposed Brilliant Pebbles defense system during the 1980s would use kinetic energy collisions without explosives. Anti satellite weapons may be launched either by an aircraft or a surface platform, depending on the design. To date, only a few known tests have occured.
Guidance systems
Missile guidance systems generally fall into a number of basic classes, each one associated with a particular role. Modern electronics has allowed systems to be mixed on a single airframe, dramatically increasing the capabilities of the missiles.
The missile's target accuracy is a critical factor for its effectiveness. Guidance systems improve missile accuracy by improving its "Single Shot Kill Probability" (SSKP).
These guidance technologies can generally be divided up into a number of categories, with the broadest categories being "active," "passive" and "preset" guidance’s. Missiles and guided bombs generally use similar types of guidance system, the difference between the two being that missiles are powered by an onboard engine, whereas guided bombs rely on the speed and height of the launch aircraft for propulsion.
Categories of guidance systems
Guidance systems are divided into different categories according to what type of target they are designed for - either fixed targets or moving targets. The weapons can be divided into two broad categories, Go-Onto-Target (GOT) and Go-Onto-Location-in-Space (GOLIS) guidance systems.[citation needed] A GOT missile can target either a moving or fixed target, whereas a GOLIS weapon is limited to a stationary or near-stationary target. The trajectory that a missile takes while attacking a moving target is dependent upon the movement of the target. Also, a moving target can be an immediate threat to the sender of the missile. The target needs to be eliminated in a timely fashion in order to preserve the integrity of the sender. In GOLIS systems the problem is simpler because the target is not moving.
GOT systems
In every GOT system there are three subsystems:
* Target tracker
* Missile tracker
* Guidance computer
The way these three subsystems are distributed between the missile and the launcher result in two different categories:
* Remote Control Guidance: The guidance computer is on the launcher. The target tracker is also placed on the launching platform.
* Homing Guidance: The guidance computers are in the missile and in the target tracker.
Remote control guidance
These guidance systems usually need the use of radars and a radio or wired link between the control point and the missile; in other words, the trajectory is controlled with the information transmitted via radio or wire.
System include
* Command Guidance - The missile tracker is on the launching platform. These missiles are totally controlled by the launching platform that sends all control orders to the missile. The 2 variants are
* Command to Line-Of-Sight (CLOS)
* Command Off Line-Of-Sight (COLOS)
* Line-Of-Sight Beam Riding Guidance (LOSBR) - The missile tracker is on board the missile. It has already some orientation capability, in order to fly inside the beam that the launching platform is using to illuminate the target. It can be manual or automatic.[1]
Command to Line-Of-Sight (CLOS)
The CLOS system uses only the angular coordinates between the missile and the target to ensure the collision. The missile will have to be in the line of sight between the launcher and the target (LOS), correcting any deviation of the missile in relation to this line. Due to the amount of missiles that use this guidance system, they are usually are subdivided into four groups:
* Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (MCLOS), The target tracking and the missile tracking and control is performed manually. The operator watches the missile flight and uses some sort of signaling system to command the missile back into the straight line between the operator and the target (the "line of sight"). Typically useful only for slower targets where significant "lead" is not required. MCLOS is a subtype of command guided systems. In the case of glide bombs missiles against ships or the supersonic Wasserfall against slow-moving B-17 Flying Fortress bombers this system worked fine, but as speeds increased MCLOS was quickly rendered useless for most roles.
* Semi-Manual Command to Line-Of-Sight (SMCLOS), The target tracking is automatic and the missile tracking and control is manual
* Semi-Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (SACLOS), The target tracking is manual and the missile tracking and control is automatic. Is similar to MCLOS but some automatic system positions the missile in the line of sight while the operator simply tracks the target. *SACLOS has the advantage of allowing the missile to start in a position invisible to the user, as well as generally being considerably easier to operate. SACLOS is the most common form of guidance against ground targets such as tanks and bunkers.
* Automatic Command to Line-Of-Sight (ACLOS), The target tracking, missile tracking and control are automatic.
Command Off Line-Of-Sight (COLOS)
This guidance system was one of the first to be used and still is in service, mainly in anti-aircraft missiles. In this system, the missile tracker and the target tracker can be oriented in different directions. The guidance system ensures the interception missile-target by locate both in space. This means that they will not rely on the angular coordinates like in CLOS systems. They will need another coordinate which is distance. To make it possible, both target and missile trackers have to be active. They are always automatic and the radar has been used as the only sensor in these systems. The SM-2MR Standard is inertially guided during its midcourse phase, but it is assisted by a COLOS system via radar link provided by the AN/SPY-1 radar installed in the launching platform.
Line-Of-Sight Beam Riding Guidance (LOSBR)
LOSBR uses a "beam" of some sort, typically radio, radar or laser, is pointed at the target and detectors on the rear of the missile keep it centered in the beam. Beam riding systems are often SACLOS, but don't have to be; in other systems the beam is part of an automated radar tracking system. A case in point is later versions of the RIM-8 Talos missile as used in Vietnam - the radar beam was used to take the missile on a high arcing flight and then gradually brought down in the vertical plane of the target aircraft, the more accurate SARH homing being used at the last moment for the actual strike. This gave the enemy pilot the least possible warning that his aircraft was being illuminated by missile guidance radar, as opposed to search radar. This is an important distinction, as the nature of the signal differs, and is used as a cue for evasive action.
LOSBR suffers from the inherent weakness of inaccuracy with increasing range as the beam spreads out. Laser beam riders are more accurate in this regards, but are all short-range, and even the laser can be degraded by bad weather. On the other hand, SARH becomes more accurate with decreasing distance to the target, so the two systems are complementary
Homing guidance
Active homing
Active homing uses a radar system on the missile to provide a guidance signal. Typically electronics in the missile keep the radar pointed directly at the target, and the missile then looks at this "angle" of its own centerline to guide itself. Radar resolution is based on the size of the antenna, so in a smaller missile these systems are useful for attacking only large targets, ships or large bombers for instance. Active radar systems remain in widespread use in anti-shipping missiles, and in "fire-and-forget" air-to-air missile systems such as AMRAAM and R-77
Semi-active homing
Semi-active homing systems combine a radar receiver on the missile with a radar broadcaster located "elsewhere". Since the missile is typically being launched after the target was detected using a powerful radar system, it makes sense to use that same radar system to track the target, thereby avoiding problems with resolution or power. SARH is by far the most common "all weather" guidance solution for anti-aircraft systems, both ground and air launched. SALH is a similar system using a laser as a signal. It has the disadvantage for air-launched systems that the launch aircraft must keep moving towards the target in order to maintain radar and guidance lock. This has the potential to bring it within range of shorter-ranged IR-guided missile systems, an important consideration now that "all aspect" IR missiles are capable of "kills" from head on, something which did not prevail in the early days of guided missiles. For ships and mobile or fixed ground-based systems, this is irrelevant as the speed (and often size) of the launch platform precludes "running away" from the target or opening the range so as to make the enemy attack fail.
Passive homing
Infrared homing is a passive system in which heat generated by the target is detected and homed on. Typically used in the anti-aircraft role to track the heat of jet engines, it has also been used in the anti-vehicle role with some success. This means of guidance is sometimes also referred to as "heat seeking".
Contrast seekers use a television camera, typically black and white, to image a field of view in front of the missile, which is presented to the operator. When launched, the electronics in the missile look for the spot on the image where the contrast changes the fastest, both vertically and horizontally, and then attempts to keep that spot at a constant location in its view. Contrast seekers have been used for air-to-ground missiles, including the famous AGM-65 Maverick, because most ground targets can be distinguished only by visual means. However they rely on there being strong contrast changes to track, and even traditional camouflage can render them unable to "lock on".
Retransmission homing
Main article: Track-via-missile
Retransmission homing, also called Track Via Missile(TVM), is a hybrid between command guidance, semi-active radar homing and active radar homing. The missile picks up radiation broadcast by the tracking radar which bounces off the target and relays it to the tracking station, which relays commands back to the missile.
GOLIS systems
Whatever the GOLIS guidance system, it must contain preset information about the target. These systems' main characteristic is the lack of target tracker. The guidance computer and the missile tracker are located in the missile. There is only one type of guidance system of this kind: Navigational Guidance.
Navigational guidance is any type of guidance executed by a system without target tracker. The other two units are on board the missile. These systems are also known as Self Contained Guidance Systems, however they're not always entirely autonomous due to the missile trackers used. They are subdivided function of their missile tracker's type:
* Entirely autonomous - Systems where the missile tracker is not dependent of any navigation external source, and can be divided in:
* Inertial Guidance
* With gyro-stabilized platform
* With strapdown platform
* Preset Guidance
* Dependent on natural sources - Navigational guidance systems where the missile tracker depends of some external source that is provided by nature:
* Celestial Guidance
* Terrestrial Guidance
* Topographic Reconnaissance (Ex: TERCOM)
* Photographic Reconnaissance (Ex: DSMAC)
* Magnetic Guidance
* Dependent on artificial sources - Navigational guidance systems where the missile tracker depends of some external source that is provided by any artificial means:
* Satellite Navigation
* Global Positioning System (GPS)
* GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)
* Hyperbolic Navigation
* DECCA
* LORAN C
Inertial guidance
Main article: inertial guidance
Inertial Guidance uses sensitive measurement devices to calculate the location of the missile due to the acceleration put on it after leaving a known position. Early mechanical systems were not very accurate, and required some sort of external adjustment to allow them to hit targets even the size of a city. Modern systems use solid state ring laser gyros that are accurate to within metres over ranges of 10,000km, and no longer require additional inputs. Gyroscope development has culminated in the AIRS found on the MX missile, allowing for an accuracy of less than 100m at intercontinental ranges. Many civilian aircraft use inertial guidance using the ring laser gyroscope, which is less accurate than the mechanical systems found in ICBMs, but which provide an inexpensive means of attaining a fairly accurate fix on location (when most airliners such as Boeing's 707 and 747 were designed, GPS was not the widely commercially available means of tracking that it is today). Today guided weapons can use a combination of INS, GPS and radar terrain mapping to achieve extremely high levels of accuracy such as that found in modern cruise missiles.[citation needed]
Preset guidance
Preset guidance is the simplest type of missile guidance. From the distance and direction of the target, the trajectory of the flight path is determined. Before firing, this information is programmed into the missile's guidance system, which, during flight, maneuvers the missile to follow that path. All the guidance components (including sensors such as accelerometers or gyroscopes) are contained within the missile, and no outside information (such as radio instructions) is used. An example of a missile using Preset Guidance is the V-2 rocket.[2]
Celestial guidance
Celestial guidance was first used in the American Poseidon missile and uses star positioning to fine-tune the accuracy of the inertial guidance system after launch. As the accuracy of a ballistic missile is dependent upon the guidance system knowing the exact position of the rocket at any given moment during its boost phase, the fact that stars are a fixed reference point from which to calculate that position makes this a potentially very effective means of improving accuracy. In the Polaris system this was achieved by a single camera that was trained to spot just one star in its expected position (it is believed that the missiles from Soviet submarines would track two separate stars to achieve this), if it was not quite aligned to where it should be then this would indicate that the inertial system was not precisely on target and a correction would be made.
Terrestrial guidance
TERCOM, for "terrain contour matching", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes the view, and compares it to stored scenes in an onboard computer to guide the missile to its target.
DSMAC is reputed to be so precise that destruction of prominent buildings in the internal map of the system (by preceding cruise missiles, among other things!) will spoil navigation.
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